AP European History  

Dylan Gaffney E-Portfolio

Chapter 29 - The Cold War

            The Cold War lasted for the better half of a century, between the democratic nations of the west, headed by the United States, and their communist counterparts, led by the Soviet Union. Their ideologies contrasted in economical doctrine and system, but also in their way of life. The result of this divide was a growing rivalry that came to several boils, but barely managed to now spill over the pot.

            The two factions had many reasons to despise each other. Their governments had very little in common. The United States stood for the rise of democracy and individual freedoms of their people, while the USSR preached that social inequality would form if these liberties were given, and ruled by a strict dictatorship crafted by Josef Stalin. From the beginning, the Bolsheviks in Russia staged their government as a platform for communist revolutions to occur throughout Europe and the world. In World War II, the two sides were able to come together, despite their differences, to fight the horrors of fascist states. Even during the war, Winston Churchill, the prime minister of Great Britain, publicly showed his disdain for Stalin and his rule. But after the war was over, and the Allies were redrawing the map of Europe once again, the false borders of alliance fell like rocks. The fact was that two very different types of peoples were both trying to spread their respective ideologies to the rest of the world. And when both are the most powerful parties at the time, opposition was inevitable. In both countries, fear of the other side and the tensions between them caused mass panic in government circles. By the 1950’s, NATO and the Warsaw Pact had separated Europe, and with it much of the world, distinctly into these sides. And iron curtain had fallen over the continent.

            Most of these ideological differences rooted in not only the nation’s ambitions, but their policy of economics. When facing the fascists, both these parties united. But in economic structure, the fascists had more in common with the Soviets than their capitalist neighbors. The capitalist believed in free market and consumer choice, which were stark opposites to the totalitarian enforcement of Marxist ideas that the Soviet Union embraced. But the tensions did not persist from this difference alone, but from the goal of each side: equality. Both sides stood against monarchy and nobility, or at least its place at the front of society. And both sides fully embraced and enforced their own views of equality. But it came down to their view of true equality: equality of opportunity, or of outcome. Both sides strove to preserve their view of this, and held distaste for opposition to it.  This contrasting process of a common goal made relations between the two sides heated from the beginning, and made political divisions easy to form.

            Additionally, people knew that communism’s goal was to spread, and in order to keep a balance of power, the Western nations adopted a policy of containment, in order to freeze the map and stop communism in its tracks, and prevent a domino effect. Infrastructure was changed in order to fit this, and these actions seemed like a direct threat to the Soviet Union. But it is important to note that civilians did play a role in the creation of the war. Especially after World War II, there was a major fear around the world of oppressive state control. The people of the Western nations effectively contributed to the Red Scare, because they themselves were frightened by communism, and elected leaders to combat that. They saw a growing Soviet Union as a legitimate threat to the liberties and rights they had in their own country. Meanwhile, because the Soviets were strictly censored under Stalin’s rule, they had no say in how their government reacted or negotiated. It was inevitable that hostilities would form in this kind of situation.

            There are many reasons that the Cold War engulfed Europe and America for more than 40 years. But in a world where war is the true decision maker, it is almost more surprising that in a conflict between the two biggest powers with two completely different world views, the war stayed so cold.

Chapter 28 - Theaters of World War II

                World War II was truly a global war that involved countries and fighting in Europe, the Pacific and Africa. But the type of fighting was not universal throughout this war. In different parts of the world, different powers were fighting on different types of terrain, which led to different types of warfare being using and succeeding as a result.

                In the west, several strategies were enforced by different sides of the war. The Nazis used the Blitzkrieg, which focused on air bombardment and armored advance for a swift, quick victory. In this way, they were able to break the liens using a rotation strategy that had failed in the trench warfare of the previous engagement. They quickly took France, Poland, and Germany through this. But another development on the Western front was the insurance that pure firepower in the air was still just a supplementary tool to land infantry and naval bombardment. In the Battle of Britain, Hitler attempted to take Britain simply by bombarding it with bombers each day. But in the end, infrastructure could not be broken, and the plan failed. When the allies came back, they also used strategic bombings to take out important industrial and military posts of the Germans, but the brunt of the fighting happened by land. Using tanks and soldiers supplied with sub-machine guns, the Allies stormed Normandy in operation overlord, and pushed the front all the way to Berlin, as did the Soviet Union, with its Red Army sweeping over Poland and reaching Berlin from the East. World War I had been fought in the midst of new technology that the people weren’t prepared for, and had sunk to trench warfare because of it. But World War II had allowed the militaries to properly remobilize the warfare, while taking the new effects of planes, tanks and machineguns into account. The front sandwiched by land and collapsed on Germany in wide lines from both sides of the continent.

                But the Pacific theatre was a much different place for the world war to take place. Unlike Europe, there was not a large continent to consider customary war. Though Japan had initially invaded Chine in 1937 that is not where the brunt of the war took place. Instead, it was between Japan and the United States, following the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in December 1941. The only battle ground between the United States was the Pacific Ocean, which is littered with many islands from the Hawaiian lands and east. After Japan initially took a lot of the American bases, the Americans employed the strategy of “Island Hopping,” in which the Americans would form a naval bombardment, following by a storming of an island. They did not do this arbitrarily through, instead taking major bases created by the Japanese as a means of gaining momentum and strength. After securely this, they continued to employ quick, naval based invasion throughout the West Pacific. By the time that the USA invaded Iwo Jima, the Japanese were effectively destroying themselves to destroy America. Their zeros could no longer win them battles, and they even resorted to kamikaze suicide missions, flying their fighters straight into American battleships. But it failed. The last result of the Pacific battlegrounds was what came imminently after. Because of its geography and fortifications, and land attacked on Japan would be extremely costly for both sides. There was no surefire was to build a front like there was in Europe. Japan was prepared to face it. Instead, the Americans played another card, dropping Atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in an attempt to force Japanese surrender, and save the mass American lives in the process. The decision has become very controversial in modern day due to its non-sparing of civilian lives, but it did its job, and eventually, after further political resistance, the Japanese surrendered. Nevertheless, it is a defining state of warfare in the Pacific from a historical aspect.

                During the Second World War, island hopping and atomic bombs characterized the Eastern battlegrounds, while blitzkrieg’s and large fronts reined hell on the enemy in the west.

Chapter 27 - America's Effect on European Depression

     Following the First World War, the European powers had tremendous debts from supplies and technology they had supported during war time.   They initially paid this back through German war reparations, but this became unreliable. In addition, there was rarely enough money in public circulation to support viable business. The remedy for this was investment in American capital. Loans soared across the Atlantic, and the influx of money coming from an American post war boom helped to create a stable economy in Western Europe. But following the stock market crash of 1929, this cushion was gone. The American money wells had run dry, and so had the economy in Europe. Without any money coming in, both investors and their businesses went broke. Principle banks like Kreditanstalt in Austria completely crashed, and the stock market become useless. The German economy had already hit rock bottom years before, and the war reparations were not enough to cover the tremendous debts by the government and stimulate business. Unemployment skyrocketed, and poverty became rampant. Because of the faith and dependency Europe had in the American economy, Europe fell through the economic ceiling just as America did in the 1930’s.

     The effect on the people and governments of Europe was unmeasurable. As the victors of World War I struggled to keep up, they pushed more and more out of their reparations. But Germany couldn’t keep up, and eventually this became useless. In 1933, the allies pardoned Germany from any further wart guilt. But unfortunately this didn’t stop the bleeding, and the damage was already done in central Europe. Throughout the continent, the economic depression caused changes in the economy of countries. With so many people suffering, they turned quickly on the free market economy so many had recently adopted. In Eastern Europe, communism had existed since the Russian Revolution. But it was during this time that Josef Stalin removed the remaining capitalism for the peasant class, and asserted sole authoritative power over the Soviet Union. This trend continued in central Europe. With a lot of bitterness and animosity towards the laissez faire nations, and a weakening trust in their own nations, people were more than happy to sign their rights over to dictatorships. They felt that they could become powerful again through the nationalist propaganda new movements proposed.  Therefore, fascist movements of Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy were met with success. Capitalism had failed them, and order and stability seemed like the best option. But these regimes harbored more than just that, and these yearns for nationalism would be a major influence on World War II. [This was my first attempt at a true 30 minute FRQ style journal]

Chapter 26 - The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles ended the single biggest conflict in European history to date, and set provisions for a more united global diplomacy. However, it did not live up to the aura surrounding it. It mocked the name of a “war without victors”, and redrew the map of the world just as the conservative politicians of the Congress of Vienna had done a hundred years earlier. The result was a selfish treaty that turned away from the Progressive Era in favor power grabs, just as had been done in major conflicts prior. In the end, the only thing the treaty guaranteed was more conflict.

For the Central powers, the end of the war meant an end of some of them. The Ottoman Empire was finally dissolved, as was the Austro Hungarian crown of former superpower Habsburgs. In their places, the victors of France and Britain determined much of the borders we now know today. The Arabian parts of the Ottoman Empire were mandated as territory to themselves almost completely arbitrarily, without any nationalist motivation. This created a turmoil of weak countries that continues to cause trouble today. On the contrary, nationalism was the main cause of deterioration with the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Areas in the Balkans and around the area where finally set into separate countries. A few formed in to Yugoslavia, and others set into separate countries. But still, these borders were made both by the Entente’s interest’s foreign interests, and as a way to limit power of Germany. When the minorities were fighting the international empire that reigned over them, they united. But once they ridded themselves of that, tensions between each other become a focus, and the lines drawn in 1919 would create problems within and between these nations for the rest of the century. These decisions in the treaty may have been necessary, but were executed in a way that benefited the writers more than the world.

But one country survived the war, and the damage done to it was almost as bad, if not worse than those which were disassembled. At the Congress of Vienna, politicians looked to restore the boundaries and governments of the pre-Napoleonic age. But in the Versailles treaty, this idea was not considered for the newly formed state of Germany. Instead, the main tactic used to limit Germany’s power in the future was another concept of Vienna: war guilt. Germany lost significant territory from the treaty, through the creation of Czechoslovakia; they lost the cultural and historical capital of Prague, as well as claims to the German populations in Austria. In addition, they were forced to demilitarize most of their empire to only provisional defense armies, as well as fully demilitarize the area of Rhineland, bordering France. But the worst of all punishments were the war reparations handed out to the German government. Through Article 231, they were required to pay the Allies $5 billion a year to pay for the French and British war debts. The result was catastrophic. The government compensated by printing more and more German marks, until inflation had made the currency completely useless. It was no longer even worth its production value. Mass poverty and chaos ensued, as business and commerce could not properly function. Regimes in the next few years would move towards correcting this, but the Treaty’s lack of acknowledgement or care for the German people the countries susceptibility to fascism in the following decade.

In addition, Russia was seen as a loser of the war.  For the first years of the conflict, Russia fought for the Triple Entente. But following the Russian Revolution mid war, they withdrew. This led to general seclusion from the rest of Europe, who saw the new communist regime as a betrayal of their alliance. A major socialist state had never before occurred, and European powers were fearful of what it might bring. As a result of this, Russia, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as it was now called, was kept out of the Treaty’s deliberations, and treated as a loser of the war. They were forced to sign the treaty just as Germany was. Through his, they lost Poland and other areas in Eastern Europe, which pushed them out of European affairs even more. The allies had effectively shunned them for their revolution. The Soviet Union proceeded to isolate itself from most countries other than its “Little brothers” in the Balkans. Post WWII, this divide would transition into the Communist-Capitalist Cold War.

The victors were able to achieve what they wanted, and did form legislation to support future diplomacy. When Woodrow Wilson first put the United States of America into the war, he did it as a humanitarian action, promoting democracy and freedom throughout Europe. He had hoped this would be instilled in the treaty and procedure used at the end of the war. However, France and Britain went another way, promoting their imperialistic designs, and their own power over domestic and foreign domains. At the end of the war, the League of Nations was created, in order to settle diplomatic issues. This new organization promised a civil and equal technique of dealing with global affairs. Instead, it was simply sued as a tool by the nations of power within it, a front and excuse for their own actions. Woodrow Wilson saw this, and realizing that his policy was lost, withdrew the United States, now a world superpower, from the League. This action doomed the organization as a legitimate authority, and contributed to the beginnings of World War II.

The Treaty of Versailles showed promise as a dictation of a bright and peaceful future for Europe. But like attempts before it, the victors abandoned these principles when and where it met their wishes, with no sympathy towards the losing powers.  This neglect of balance of power did not uphold the standards of the Progressive era, and would eventually lead to another, even more devastating, World War.

Chapter 26 - A Day in the Trenches

Dear Journal,

I woke up to one of the most unpleasant feelings a man can have, a rat skittering across my face. I woke with a start, and tried to dispose of it, but just like always, it was already tucked into a dirt crevice, somewhere beyond my vision. As it was nearly daylight already, I headed to work.

The rats have been increasingly prevalent that last few days. After the last German Howitzer rush, 3 days ago, we lost dozens, including Evans, from my platoon. Since then, the rats have taken care of waste disposal duty and eaten every single chunk of flesh they can get their hands clear. We can’t move our fallen brethren out of the trenches, let alone give them a proper burial, because enemy snipers have had No Man’s Land completely covered. Therefore, corpses lay strewn all around us, most with flesh of parts torn right out, either from artillery shells or the post mortem scavengers. An odor indescribable to civilians seemed to ooze from the very area they encompassed, spreading through the trenches. It would be hard to distinguish even their humanity without the familiar light blue uniform of the French Army showing through blood stains and entrails. Sometimes that couldn’t be said for the Brits.

But the war continues as always with the morning stand to. I picked up my Lebel 1886, fixed on my bayonet and climbed up on the fire step. Smoke billowed in the air between us and the space we knew the enemy trench was. Cleary posted up next to me, and together we combed the burnt out wasteland, looking for any sign of German activity. As is usually lately, there was none of note, and so after about an hour, we were relieved and dispersed back into the trench. Within 10 minutes, the brakka brakka brakka of machine gun fire had begun, and the Morning Hate proceeded. Sgt. Clemont, our nearest machine gunner, plastered the mist in front of him with line upon lines of ammunition, but eventually shots ceased, and no movement had been made.

After the stalemate was insured, the breakfast carts came to serve us a delicious meal. If there is anything nice about life in this war, it is that we are kept fairly well fed. The carts come in from the communication lines, and there is a general calmness during this time of the day. We all need to eat, and it seems we have a mutual understanding with the enemy about this. I sat at a corner of the bunker with Cleary, eating through our rations. Today it was mostly containing stale baguettes and some powdered milk. Not too shabby considering our circumstances. As we finished, Cleary noted that we should tend to our weapons.

I swiped slugs from the area around me as we took out our rifles. It is impossible to stay clean in the trenches, and our weapons show that as well. If they get clogged, their functionality drastically decreases. Cleary took out his Lee Enfield Mark III. It’s a fine weapon that the British Army carry and it’s very accurate at range. As a member of the French Army, I carry the Lebel. But I because I was educated in Britain, I don’t find myself spending time with my compatriots too much. I cleaned the grime from the barrel and stock, and gradually finished cleaning it. Captain Foley is technically supposed to inspect this, and soldiers from other platoons I talk to say it is normal, but Foley seems to obey an honor code on this one. Our weapon is the only thing we immediately have to fight back against a threat, and of course it is in our best interest to keep in in good condition. The way Foley sees it, if a soldier isn’t willing to go through these precautions, they won’t last anyway.

It was around noon by the time we had finished, and I went to Foley for further instruction.  I was instructed along with about 10 others to refill the sandbags along our left wall. We got to work, building up a barricade higher on the side in case of a German flank operation. While we were there, we positioned the barbed wire properly around the top where it had been knocked down, but of course we were careful to stay in cover. The trench here was in horrible condition. It was an extension of the main line used for scouting purposes, but had not been properly pumped in over a week. Mud had turned to puddles; it would be hard to place machine gun here if needed. We finished our work and started back through the trenches. It would almost be time for the sunset Stand To. But we arrived no sooner than to hear a patrol rushing towards the bunker.

“Howtizer!” cried the leader, a man I did not immediately recognize. A tremendous explosion rippled through the earth behind him. Gore blasted through the air as the speaker dove over the barbed wire and into the trench. I pulled my rifle up. Machine gun fire burst from every turret on both sides, deafening ears and causing mass confusion. Shell casings flews everywhere, and I ducked in cover as I treaded through. Foley was yelling and pointing a corner of the bunker that led to the forest, barking orders I couldn’t make out. I turned in confusion, but Cleary grabbed me and pulled me towards the spot.

We crouched and kept going until we came up to a shooting window. I pulled up my Lebel and fire towards the muzzle flashes. I emptied my magazine, reloaded, and pulled out. I don’t know if I hit anybody. It’s never possible to tell. We kept running, about 4 of us, towards to next bunker. Suddenly, the machine gun fire in front of me abruptly stopped. “They’ve got gas!” screamed Clemont. Within 3 seconds I could feel it. I rushed out my gas mask, fitting in on, but I could barely see. I heard coughing very close to me, and a young English private who was with us tapped my arm. When I turned my head, he was gazing at me with wide eyes, . Before I could do anything he cringed, double over, and presumably passed out. But we had to keep moving.

Cleary and I, along with a French gunner, Renfet, reached the end of the line. I looked back toward where we had come, and already bodies were filling the trench holes accounting for mass loss of life. Cleary yelled something, but I couldn’t hear or see him properly with the commotion and the gas mask. The air around us was almost completely green, but it was starting to clear. Cleary yelled again.

“There’s an opening on the right! We can take them if we get out of the gas!” I aimed my rifle towards the mist smoke and took another shot. It was futile though. I was just wasting ammunition. Renfet had with him a light machine gun, and he placed it on the lip of the trench and fired, thousands of bullets coursing through the air.

Again, the machine gun fire stopped. This time when I looked, it was not for a warning.  Where Renfet had been was now just a body, a single sniper’s bullet between his eyes. “That’s it; I’m going for that bit of brush!” Cleary yelled. I yelled something I can’t even remember at him. My ears were filled with a piercing echo.

Cleary was climbing up the trench. I tried to grab at him, but he hoped over the barbed wire, making a dash for a tree some 40 meters away. But a machine gun round to the should stopped that plan, and he veered in agony back towards the center of the battle. Stumbling, he fell on his knees in a hole, and the mine had exploded him to bits with any remorse. I looked for his body, but found only his upper torso and head in the dirt, stained with blood and burn wounds. Just another meal for the rats now.

I sprinted back towards the center of the trench system, and found myself back in the mix of soldiers: some still kicking and some far gone. We traded blows for another few minutes before Clemont ran out of ammo, and it appeared the Germans did to. Rounds continued to go off at slower rates, until the jolted peace was restored. A sullen, dark silence.

It was back to business as usually, as if nothing had happened. We were ordered to take inventory and go back on Stand To, as if the Germans were already ready for another attack. I finally got some time to write only now, as the night grows dark and we settle in for whatever rest we have before tomorrow.

Sometimes I wonder about the nature of the German soldiers. They seem to respect us at breakfast time, and our trading of pace is almost more cautionary than offensive. Yet they are also more professional, calculating their strategies and attacking far more than we do.  When we took a trench of their once, the walls and floors were wooded almost to perfection and the trench was perfectly deep. No wonder they have a hold on us. But we repel them every time.

Either way, this is just a political war. The alliances are countries have built mean nothing to me, and I question why we are even fighting the Central Powers. I hope soon we can return to a war of movement. A glorious war with true battles and heroes, just like my grandfather describer to me as a child in his stories. But that seems unlikely now. Our war is a war of loss.

Currents of Thought Reflection

The Currents of Though presentation was definitely a long haul. I am going to admit that right here and now that I read through Emily’s reflection of the project, only to see her perspective on our project, and while I don’t think shaping a response to a non-argumentative piece is appropriate, I would like to give my side as well.

            We started this project in the very throws of the term paper, and my mind was very fixated on that at the beginning. I would also like to make it clear that I did not only pick science to be in a group with Zach, as science was my first choice anyway. On the first day, we divided up groups, and I ended up with inventions, which I had advocated for, and sociology, which I did not know much about.

            When we went into the library, I probably did not work as much as I should have. But it’s not like I did nothing. I found a list of inventions specifically related to the time period, and put down the key inventions. Then I researched a bit and found the key sociologists and the definition of sociology. At that point, I had a lot on my plate, and honestly, I pushed this back. It is not that I didn’t care about the project and meant to frustrate my group members. I simply knew that we weren’t presenting for a month, but the term paper was due in a week. So I decided to allocate my time to later, when I would have a clearer head, as well as be able to work on it at home: on a computer and in a space I am very comfortable with. I did goof off, but I knew what I was doing, and I don’t think it actually hurt our presentation in the end.

            Then Emily told us that we were going to need ideas for the introduction and outro activity, so I came up with some. We decided the outro activity was obviously going to be a song, and we were brainstorming intro ones. I suggested we use balloons and segment the people around the room, putting inventions and advancements into certain categories that the students knew from the scientific revolutions, or could infer. However, Emily rejected this, as if I was somehow joking or goofing off.  I wasn’t at all, in the end, we ended up doing the exact same activity, just without the balloons. I wasn’t trying to make a joke with the balloons; I was only suggesting a way to liven it up, as we weren’t using candy like the other groups. I don’t think it would have been too much effort to tape our topic notecards to a balloon, but it would definitely make the project a bit livelier. The same thing goes for the Darwin monkey picture (I included a few in the concluding slide). Zach and I originally did not want to have an SSP, as we find them cliché and boring to keep going over. And I do attest that Emily agreed with this. But when we found the Darwin picture, we decided it would be ok to at least put it up there and have the kids analyze it, and it was a bit funny as well. Then we find that Emily deleted our slide and posted her own instead. It’s meaning was nearly the exact same that we were going to use with ours, except you don’t get the chuckle. Since we had agreed on this as a group, we decided to simply replace it again, and of course she did the same. In the end we had a picture that did the same thing as ours, just without the chuckle. I guess it’s all in the interpretation. What Emily considered goofing off and not caring was just us wanting to portray the information in a more fun, engaging way, and I think that was lost on her.

            Anyway, I ended up getting my project done at home, just as I had planned to, and with days to spare. I didn’t really procrastinate like Emily and even Zach thought I did. I knew exactly when I would have the most time and the clearest head to work on it, and so I did it then: precisely when I planned too. Honestly, I consider that a success for me, although I think that relief may have affected my work in the days after (the currents of thought journals quality and my forgetting to do this in particular). But I did get it done, and although I did use the PowerPoint instead of notecards in my presentation, I did it only to remind me of what was there, and then expanded on it facing the class as much as I could.

            The only problem with the preparation was Zach’s schedule. He is doing tech crew for the spring musical, which meant that he was booked pretty much every night and sometimes on weekends to. Combined with the events of snow, this made it very difficult to get together and make the song. We worked on the lyrics over Skype, but we obviously couldn’t get the video done without being together. In addition, we couldn’t find a karaoke for our song without backing vocals, so we had to find a sample guitar tab, play it in my headphones, stick my mic in and record it as it came out. It wasn’t pretty and took some time. For the video, we had to wait until the Wednesday of conferences where we had a half day, unfortunately only 2 days before our presentation. And when we finished filming I had even a harder time editing. The others could be no help, but it was helpless. Half the files wouldn’t even send, which is why half of the video is made up of pictures. And I guess in ill fate I had gotten Ranger tickets for Thursday night a long time ago. So I ended up trying to edit it before I had to go. Twice it crapped out on me and I had to start over, and the finished product I was left with wouldn’t render. I then had to convert every video file (which was already supposed to be supported by movie maker), and redo it. I got it done, but I couldn’t upload it until Friday. In the end I was a period late to the game and didn’t get to bed till 2 in the morning. I was probably my fault in most part, but definitely not the way to have the night before the presentation.

            The actual presentation went well though I think, although we didn’t finish on the first day (this might have been due to note taking, but I still think it’s worth it, as I learn next to nothing from packets with fill ins). I think I did my part well. I was a little choppy on Marx, mostly because I didn’t know what to say without repeating the politics presentations. But I spoke better than I thought I would, and like before, I think it was expressive and not copying the PowerPoint. Emily said I didn’t focus on the impact, but I think I did for the big inventions like phones and cars, and anything with that topic can be easily inferred. Maybe I should have done this more with sociology, but I had seen it as satisfactory at the time.

Overall I think I did pretty well. My planning and work style may not have gone over well with my group members, both Emily and Zach, but in the end I think I accomplished about as much as I could, and I just wanted to make an interesting project. It was a bit of a learning experience in terms of shaping it around other things, but I am satisfied at the end with how I and my group did, whatever our grade is.

Chapter 23 - Intellectual

                 In the mid nineteenth century, the Crystal Palace symbolized a new technological age for Europe. In the past century, Great Britain had been the center for progress, moving agricultural, scientific, and industrial progress forward. But following the Crystal Palace’s Exhibition in 1851, this club was no longer exclusive.  All of the countries that attended were able to bring home ideas and machinery they had learned, allowing them to catch up in the industry race, and allowing for further development. By the dawn of World War 1, the rest of the world had caught and passed the pioneer country in discovery and production.

                At the Great Exhibition of 1851, 28 countries came together to see other’s inventions and showcase their own for the world. When they saw the other peoples’ exhibits, it created a competition between countries to have the superior technology. The sciences were promoted more in schools and colleges by their nations, giving a broader audience the knowledge to discover or create for themselves. Scientists became more specified into certain fields, which allowed greater depth into each specialization. People were encouraged to learn more about the world around him, and new ideas to improve quality of life flurried into the market.

                Finally, the Crystal Palace showed that progress could be made on a world level. All of the countries came together despite their own politics to share ideas that could create advancement on a global scale. In this communion, countries that may have not had good relations could work with each other for mutual benefit, spurring advancements in machinery and method that would not have happened in an isolated setting.  For the years going forward, there was advancement on different fronts from different countries, instead of the linear growth of the first Industrial Revolution. These decades can be describers as the Second Industrial Revolutionary, which touched the world on a much broader and influential scale than the earlier one. By creating a platform where inventions and creativity could thrive, the Crystal Palace and its expo creating this.

Chapter 21 - Political

                In 1848, a series of revolutions rapidly spread across the continent of Europe, bringing with it rich feelings of nationalism. This was especially apparent in the realms of empires that spanned multiple through different regions. The greatest example of this is the Austrian Habsburg Empire, which contained areas from Germany, Austria, Hungary, Northern Italy and the Balkans. With so many different domains, many citizens felt their nation was not being represented through their government. The largest of these groups was the Maygars of Hungary. With uprisings cropping up around them, tensions grew. This is evident in the Hungarian National Anthem of the time, which is filled with notions of liberty and independence from the “tyrants” that ruled over them. During the year of revolutions, Hungary finally pushed back. Although this attempt, like many others of the time, proved futile, it wouldn’t be long after that the Maygars were given their own entity within the empire.

                Nationalism was a major movement throughout the early nineteenth century, so it makes sense that states seeking nation based government would incorporate this into their culture. This theme is evident in the National Anthem of Hungary during the time period. Nearly the entire song not only promotes the country, but denounces the Austrian Empire rule over it. The song begins with a call to action for all Maygars, asking, “Shall we be slaves, shall we be free?” It is clear that the Maygars were thinking about not just standing their ground, but attacking the institution. From the very beginning of the piece, it does not glorify their country as much as persuade people to fight for it. They felt that they were the slaves of Austria, owned as property of the empire instead of their own people. This trend continues throughout the remainder of the songs, which numerous references to being freed. In addition, and similar to other nationalist movements of the time, the lyrics call back on the former independent states of the region, swearing to return Hungary to its former glory. The theme of ending the imperial rule over Hungary continues through the rest of the song. Each of the 6 verses ends with the refrain “For by the Magyar's God above, we truly swear, we truly swear the tyrant's yoke, No more to bear!” Not only is this speaking out against their oppression, but makes a statement calling for some kind of rebellion.  A parallel can be made between this call to action, and other rebellions, such as the French Revolution. It acts as both a motto for the Maygar patriots and a call to action for common Hungarians, to stand up for their nation in a multicultural empire.

                In retrospect, it is obvious that the country was gearing up for a revolution. Unlike most national anthems, the lyrics do not evoke a positive view of itself, but only acts to increase nationalist power and hopes for independence. When the trend of Europe turned to revolutions, it is no surprise that the Maygars were a part of it. Their tenacity for representation and respect in their own government persisted until the creation of the Duel Monarchy in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. 

Chapter  20 - Impact of Conservatism, Liberalism and Nationalism

               After the Napoleonic Age, Europe’s politics were highlighted by the perspectives of conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism. Though they all held distinctly separate ideologies, their, their overlapping in some policy and strict opposition in others cause movements that would shape Europe going forward.

                Following the Congress of Vienna, conservative powers were once again in near complete power over Europe. With it, they advocated for the restoration of stable, hereditary monarchies to France, and the consolidation of such monarchies in other Nation States. In Eastern Europe especially, this was a major stand for Absolutist Regimes. In Austria, the Habsburgs were having significant trouble dealing with the nationalist sentiments in their domains. Their empire was very sprawling over the continent, and they would lose significant holding in Germany, Italy and the Balkans if those states would form national unions of independence. Leader Metternich tried to avoid this by crushing any signs of reform or liberal movements in his power, culminating in the Carlsbad Decrees. Though new ideas challenged the power of conservative Europe, they failed to dethrone its ancient rules and steadfast politics for dozens of years later.

                A separate party with ulterior motivations, the nationalists believed that a nation state should consist of an area of people with the same language and culture. Because of this, they opposed the settlements from the Congress of Vienna, as they restored the imperial power to areas like Austria and Russia, who ruled over many of these nations. The faction also supported popular sovereignty of the people, which in some cases opposed both liberal and conservative beliefs. Nationalists scored a few victories in changing the Vienna age map in the succeeding years, mainly in Belgium and Serbia, who achieved independence. In addition, they tried to establish the national culture throughout Europe, creating and enforcing official languages to countries like France and Italy in schools, instead of local dialects. However, problems occurred in some of their logic, as small ethnic groups who could not be viable countries fit these criteria, while some countries who had been nationalistic for hundreds of years, such as France, struggled to meet them. Overall, nationalism was a separate entity in the political divisions of Europe, but had a significant effect that would continue to influence Europe in the future.

                Liberals of the nineteenth century believed in many principles enforced by the Enlightenment, and in a way, the evolution of humanism from the Renaissance. They wanted to see constitutional government be the main ruler of the people throughout Europe, and eliminate the arbitrary power of kings. However, beyond that, most liberals did not want a truly representative government; they feared its potential lack of stability almost as much as an absolute monarchy. Besides Great Britain, most of these regions were ruled autocratically. Therefore the main goal of these factions of liberals was to create a stable and fair constitutional monarchy system that did not fall into the undoing of the French Revolution, but gave rights and liberties to the individual. Economically, liberals favored a free market economy, and the freedom of trade. They advocated for the ability to manufacture and sell goods without government control, and the elimination of many trade taxes. However, naturally this started to create a social scheme based on aristocracy and rank by wealth.  While they rallied against the overarching ultimate power of absolute governments, they became known for their displeasure of the poor peasants nearly as much.

Chapter 18 - French Revolution

October 14th, 1788

I am worried about the state of our people. The price of bread has sky rocketed, and my neighbors are begging on the street. Poverty is everywhere, and I fear I will have nothing left myself soon. Meanwhile, the royal family is sitting on their high horse over at Versailles, enjoying lavish meals and indulging in far more than any person could possibly need at virtually no cost. It only gets worse every day. People are very angry, and I can see why.  Over in England, they have been happy with a Constitutional Monarchy for hundreds of years! Yet here, the Estates General hasn’t met in the living past, and the common person has no guaranteed rights. Louis is going to have to act, or something is going to give.

June 13th, 1789

Things have surely taken a turn for the worst here in Paris. No longer can a day go by without the threat of losing everything. The economy is absolutely horrible for the commoner, and nothing is being done to fix it in Versailles. About a month ago, the Estates General was finally convened to discuss the turmoil of our nation, and with a promise. The 3rd estate would be granted double representation, allowing it to match the Clergy and the Nobles. What they didn’t tell us is that the voting would still be done by Estates, making that completely useless. It is no surprise that nothing got done. Perhaps 2 weeks ago now, the third estate was found locked outside of the palace in order to surprise it. I looked on as the people rallied on a local handball court, demanding a constitution for the people of France.

July 14th, 1789

I never thought I would see a day like this in my life. 3 days, ago, Louis dismissed Jacques Necker, perhaps the only rational person in our government today. Well, it’s only common logic that Louis was taking direct action towards his people. Overwhelmingly, people had had enough. They were able to get access to guns, and needed ammunition and gunpowder. Where else to get it in Paris but the Bastille? I wanted to see what was happening up close, but Claire urged me not to get involved and possibly endanger myself. So I decided to gather some of my neighbors so we could watch from afar, a few streets over. Hundreds of people were storming the inside of the building, and fire started it erupt large clouds of smoke. Chanting, shouting and fighting ensued as the armed citizens of Paris tore the building to shreds. Awhile later they finally emerged, carrying Governor de Launay’s head on a pike for the rest of the city to see.  I don’t know what to think of what will become of today. But what I do know is that whatever it is, this is only the beginning.

October 8th, 1789

The last few weeks have been nothing short of insane. First, King Louis had his royal guard surround Paris, almost in some sort of trap against us. The National Assembly also passed a bill in August proclaiming that all feudalistic ties of the Old Regime be abolished. However, this didn’t go over easy with the king, and created only more conflict. 2 days, ago, a mob of woman armed with homemade blunt and sharp weapons ransacked Versailles. They tore through it, killing dozens of the royal guard and nearly killing Marie Antoinette herself. They tore through their rooms and destroyed many of the belongings inside. Claire and I followed the mob as they went, intrigued as to what was going to happen. When we saw the mob come back out, they were bringing with them the royal family in procession. We marched back with them, and escorted them to the Tuileries Palace, which has been abandoned since before my grandfather’s time. I think something was proven today. The people are in control now, not Louis. This isn’t just a revolt. The army is on the rebellion’s side, making Louis powerless to even such attacks on his palace, and they can place him wherever they want.  This is turning into something bigger than I could have ever imagined.

July 26th, 1791

Yesterday was quite an ordeal after such a long time of peace. Perhaps I was naïve to think that we were passed this chaos, since things seemed to be okay for over a year now. The government has worked much like that of England, with the every bill and decision passing through both the King and the National Assembly. But perhaps Louis had simply had enough of being held in this sort of benign captivity when he and his family attempted to flee Paris for the border of Austria last week. This is of course a very dangerous act. Perhaps, he was just trying to escape the torment and demise he has endured. But there is also the chance he was plotting to take back his absolute power. After all, Marie Antoinette is Austrian, and holding up there would be the perfect opportunity to raise a foreign army, since he no longer has his own. While I agree that the state of France needed to be altered from the suffering the royalty was letting happen, I do not want a foreign conflict. My neighbors can get very charged up and irrational over this conflict, but no matter what happens, I do not think  raging any type of war on our king will end well for either side. He has back in Paris now. Only time will tell what happens from here.

September 24th, 1792

Robespierre and the assembly have introduced a new weapon, “The Guillotine.” So far it is has spilled the blood of hundreds of people who remarked against the methods or views of the revolution. It terrifies me, for it is so orderly and casual, yet grotesque and cruel at the same time.  The assembly seems to be getting more and more extreme with their actions. While the French army is away in Austria, in a war I don’t think we should have started, the citizens of Paris were left alone with the prisoners of nobility and power. I suppose they felt themselves in danger, but running through the jails slaughtering these people without a trial is not only a crime and violation of human rights, it is barbaric. Our country was in a depressive state before this rebellion, but it seems it is only getting worse with the new regimes they keep putting up. A couple of days ago they officially abolished the monarchy. Let’s hope that can put an end to the hostilities

January 22nd, 1793

Yesterday, any hopes I had that this conflict could still end in some sort of peace were crushed when “Citizen Louis Capet,” as they announced him, was executed for treason. Claire and I went, leaving the children alone, as we did not want them to see. Louis was never a good king and we had a lot of issues with him. But he had already been imprisoned and taken off the throne. What purpose did killing him serve? Eventually the violence has to stop. Robespierre says that for the republic to live, the king must die. But if he isn’t even the king anymore, and is just treated as a common prisoner, what is the use in killing him but to worsen international relations even further? As Louis XVI took his final steps up the guillotine, he said to the people that although he was innocent of the allegations and was being wrongly executed, he hoped that his death would help the French people reach satisfaction with their bloodlust, and you know what, I tend to agree with him.

September 21st, 1793

I am tempted to believe that Maximillian Robespierre is going insane. Ever since he has headed the “Committee of Public Safety,” nobody in the public has been safe.  He has reigned horror on any citizen who is the slightest bit offensive towards the government. When Marat was killed by that kill from the country, everybody started to make him out as this martyr. But he was spreading irrational lies throughout his paper every day! I thought this new government was supposed to stand for truth and justice, not chaos and anarchy! Tomorrow a new calendar is being introduced. Yes, that’s right; Robespierre has stated that Christianity is corrupt, and that there should be no churches, Cathedrals, or even ties to the church itself. I honestly don’t understand the new calendar, but if Robespierre thinks that his will is above that of God himself, then by God’s name, damn him to hell!

13th Pluviôse, Year 1

I swear to God I will kill Maximillian Robespierre with my bare hands! Claire was in a bread line today, talking to someone when our neighbor, Jasper Schonet, walked by. In glancing greeting, she addressed him as “Monsieur,” a typical title we have used our entire lives! But the Committee only wants to hear its new term “Citizen,” so that there is nothing left of the old regime. A spy overheard and arrested her on the spot. Now they have taken her from me, and she is locked away in a cage like some animal. I know what happens to people who cross this government. They get a dinner date with the national razor by sunset. If they hurt her, I will kill the entire committee myself!

February 10th, 1794

I am done conforming to the ways of the goddamned “Republic.” They can’t tell me that my calendar is too corrupt. They are evil monsters! Today, Claire, my wife of 15 years and lifelong friend, was put on the guillotine for “treason against the republic.” We have been friends since childhood, and married at 19. Everything I have ever worked for was for her and our 3 children.  She was the most beautiful and intelligent woman I have ever met, with such a charming personality and a sense of humor that could light up a room. Yet, I had to stand in front of a cheering crowd as she was executed for what was at most a petty misdemeanor. I did everything I could to stop them, but when I appealed to the National Convention, I was threatened with my lives of myself and my children for acts against the revolution. I stayed with her all the way up until we reached the Place de la Revolution, where they ended her life with one swift thud of that deviant tool. I would never think of committing suicide, but they only thing that stops me from risking my life to kill Robespierre is my children. They now are without a mother, and I must remain strong for them. But I vow I will get my revenge!

June 8th, 1794

With great reluctance and anger, I attended the Festival of the Supreme Being today. And what I saw was the biggest laughing stock of my life. I knew that Maximillian Robespierre was a disgusting, insane pig, but today was just crossing the line of reality. He came out on this gigantic tower, wearing a toga and rambling off a verse of some Cult of Reason ritual. Does he think he is God? What is actually wrong with him? People have been a little on edge about him ever since the execution of Danton in March, but today, for the first time I can recall, people were openly mocking and talking about him. His delusional performance has finally cracked the people of France. Maybe finally we can end his “Republic” of genuine tyranny.

July 29th, 1794

These past days may have been the most satisfying in years, and the happiest since Claire’s passing. Finally, after years of terror over the people of Paris and France, Robespierre was seized after he stated he had a new list of traitors that anyone could be on! What an idiot. The power went to his head far more than any king we have had in my lifetime, though I have only known 2. He was found attempting suicide, but he only managed to shoot himself in the jaw. I would have given anything to see him in that pain in person. Nevertheless, he was brought forth and convicted without a trial. As if he needed one. If Claire’s trial was passed, Robespierre could have been executed a thousand times over. Finally, after months of sorrow and pain, I was able to get my revenge for my wife’s death. I came early so I was right in front, with a sharpened wooden pike by my side. When the national razor cut through his neck, I could almost feel the blood spray on me. The executioner raised his lifeless head to crowd and I cheered. I raised my pike towards the stage, and the executioner stuck it on to. I raised it in the air and marched. Maximillian Robespierre had gotten a bit of his own methods. Such a devilish and hateful action is not something I want to tell my children about, by now I know that I was able to redeem a little justice for their mother, and for the good of France. For now, that is enough.

December 1st, 1775

I raise my children alone because of the events of the last 5 years. I don’t know if I will ever be the same person I was in 1789. Poverty is still rampant, and bread prices are still high, but I am not the same man, and I don’t think anybody in Paris is. They ratified the constitution, and have a new Directory in place while war rages in foreign lands with the other European powers. This year hasn’t been without its riots or fighting, especially considering the fight 3 months ago. But I think that things can calm down for good. For me and my family, that is something that has to be done. My part in this Revolution was usually not favorable either side to, but the effects it had are me are far greater. I say with certainty that this turmoil has wronged me in many ways. But whether it has right or wronged France a nation is yet to be determined.

Chapter 17 - Nature of Man

             Throughout the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophes gave their input to the great debate: what is the nature of man? During this period, opinion ranged from Rousseau’s “man is good, society is corrupt,” to Hobbes’s opinion that man is genuinely evil and selfish. Everybody is their own person with their own personality and character, but in the end, man cannot be described as good or evil. However there is one underlying truth that all people share, whether they conceal it or not, and that is their selfishness.

             In today’s day and age, as well as far and recent past, most people are truly only in any situation to fulfill their own wants and needs. This quality feeds into greediness, and dates back as long as history itself. The Hundred Years War started purely because the king of a country wanted more for himself, and he wasn’t given it. The countries themselves benefited from being separate, but Edward III was only after more power for himself. This same tactic is used today by many nations. Countries will only get involved in a war or world conflict if it fits with their agenda, and they have something to gain. With this philosophy, the United States of America only entered World War I went it would help to stimulate their economy. Furthermore, countries will do anything to show their own power and wealth to the world. Nobles and kings in medieval times and through the Age of Revolutions wore expensive clothes, jewelry, and built brilliant palaces that abused the country’s money, but also flashed it to the rest of the world. These people, such as Louis XIV and his palace of Versailles, wanted the world to see their fortune and power, and would make the country worse to do so. Then of course there is Catherine de Medici, who completely abandoned all her loyalties when he corrupted her own sons into doing horrible deeds. She did not rule for her country, or even her non-governmental alliances, but purely for her own sake. As time went on, there were a few politiques: Elizabeth I, Henry IV of Navarre, etc. But the general nature of people is selfish. Society may corrupt people, but society only represents what the majority of people are in the first place.

            One universal law that could help to solve this is to require everyone to donate a small percentage of their wealth to a charity r organization of their choice, like an income tax. It would still allow for people to earn as much as they work for, but it would force people to not be as selfish with what they have. The percentage would be constant no matter economic status, but as the people would be richer, they would pay more simply because there portion is larger. And when people would get richer, there would also be benefits for others. Plus, since you could donate the tax to whatever because you want, people wouldn’t be giving anything to the government. It would not be used any other way except in ways designated by the beneficiary him or herself. It wouldn’t have to be a large percentage, but it would still stand to make people be more charitable, and put that kind of charity in a good light for each person in society.

Chapter 17 - Rococo vs. Neoclassicism

                Rococo art is complicated in nature, but grainy in texture and tone. Created as a counter movement to Baroque art, Rococo flourished in France, Italy and Germany throughout the early to mid eighteenth century. Though artists were able to paint more complicated scenes on their canvas, they did not choose to use smooth textures, as seen in “The Swing” by Jean Honoré Fragonard. The trees, bushes, sculpture and people are replicated very well and integrated with their surroundings. However, the paint itself almost appears separated into tiny blotches within the piece. This can be seen much closer up in “A Young Girl Reading” The tones on her face due not smooth out, and then tend to contrast into little spots instead of blend, much like an old photograph. Because of this, the art gives a very detailed but unrealistic image. Finally, even at this point, a lot of the faces on people in the paintings look pudgy, strange and relatively the same, an overreaching part still seen from much earlier time periods.

                On the other hand, Neoclassicism encompasses smooth and extravagant textures. Jean Augusrte Ingres’s, “The Sabine Woman,” from 1799, shows this. It keeps the detail of Rococo, but expresses it in a totally different way. The borders of each character are more defined, and the textures show no sign of graininess, instead carrying a single value throughout their entire piece. There is much more blending and light effects. Shiny reflections on foreheads and shading on the bodies is done in a much more fluent way, creating a more advanced and impressive version of Renaissance art. In addition, each face, though similar, has a different overall structure, and the eyes and cheeks do not bulge anymore. This is also seen in “The Oath of Brutus.” Not only does the art show more of the political developments of the time, but again highlights the smooth, rich textures and the bold, dark outlines. This is in direct contradiction to the Rococo effects of grainy, undefined art. Instead, this reflection of Renaissance art and indirectly the ancient Greeks and Romans led into the triumph of Romanticism.

Chapter 16 - Slavery

                Father Bob, I come here to tell you of my suffering and plight during the passage of my village people and me to the New World.

                Long ago, before this nightmare, I lived in a small village on the Gold Coast. We lived on the land and the animals that grazed near. As a young man in the village, I should have been hunting when it happened. I should have been out there to fight for my village, but that day I had stayed behind. White men attacking and conquering our lands in nothing new. As far as my ancestors told stories, the Romans and other empires have built dynasties, trying to control all the Earth. But never did we expect, nor were we prepared for what happened next.

               They came in the night and took us. We suspect now, or those of us that still hold contact, believe a rival tribe may have been involved in setting up our capture, but we can’t be sure. Nevertheless, we couldn’t hold them off. They had explosives and bows of fire. There was no way we could fight for ourselves, especially knowing that we would be risking our family’s lives by doing so. Without warning, the Northerners came through as though they were working a machine, going through each house in order, and dragging out its squirming inhabitants in the same uniform formation. I peered out the window of my hut to see them coming towards it. My sisters and parents were being carried away from me before I had time to process it. When they came for me, and slipped into the shackles and chains, resigned to whatever uncertain fate lied before me.

                It was hard to see in the darkness until the reflections of moonlight in the water became apparent. We were thrown on a large ship, shackled to each other and the floor in fairly tight quarters. We could talk, move and breathe, but we were separated from our loved ones. However, it was bearable. I assumed at the time we were just another story of conquest, being taken to be tried or executed as prisoners of war. It was the force feeding that confused me. I thought they would starve us and torture us in malnourishment and hunger. Little did I know that it was exactly the opposite. The pale men instead force fed us, even when we were full. More than I had ever eaten. But it was far from pleasant. I had to try as hard as I could to keep my food down. This was just the beginning of the end for our free and individual life. As clueless as I was, these were probably the easiest days of my captivity.

                After days of journeying, we were hoarded off of the ships. At first we thought we had landed in the new world, but we were still far from it, only having reached the western seaboard of Africa, at some kind of hub. They grouped us together and then divided us apart, all by different ages, genders, body strength and other unseen qualities. When we reached the base of the lines, we were branded with a specific set of punctures and burns that I assume resembled some kind of code. At this point we were separated from the woman and children. The weaker people I had known from my village, I never saw again. We then boarded the ship again and were let back onto the boat, still separated. We were lined, ordered and subdued like cattle, and there was nothing we could do to stop it.

                For about 3 months, our suffering on the ship continued across the ocean. Conditions were terrible. They gave us no room or care, which caused major problems. We couldn’t bathe or dispose of our waste on the boat. Our lack of sanitation caused fecal matter, vomit, even pus and blood to spread across the space of many blacks. We were beaten for disobeying, and when a few captives tried to commit suicide and end the torment, the whites just beat them harder and made it worse. They couldn’t stand to lose out on their investment. But when slaves started to get sick, so did the white. Diseases like smallpox killed the whites and blacks alive, and countless people around me died. I feared for my life then even more than at the beginning, because once you got infected it was just a slow, grueling death, and I saw it happen too many times during those months.

                By the time we reached coastal waters, dozens of my brethren were dead. I would never hear from most of my family again. When landed in the West Indies, we were sold like goods to settlers that were there, and I was bought; I finally realized that I was a slave. I was nothing more than a piece of property now. Some of the slaves who had come before showed me how to act and do the work. Sometimes we would try to compare the brandings we did and still carry; hoping to reunite with loved ones. But since we never truly understood what the stamps meant, those efforts were futile. One thing is for sure. From now on, I am not my own person, but something for my owner to use for his benefit. Now I ask you, Father. Does that appease the heavenly father’s plans and wi

Chapter 15 - Technological/Economic

                During the latter half of the seventeenth century and into the eighteenth century, major advancements were taken in the field of agriculture to make farming an easier and more efficient process.  However, dispute lies within the nature of this change, and whether it actually fits the definition of its namesake. Despite this, the Agricultural Revolution was in fact a revolution, due to the drastic changes to the normal order of its field.

                Initially, there were new and innovative methods created for fertilizing and making use of soil. In the Netherlands, polders were created to harvest and more land that was extremely fertile. In addition, they created natural fertilizer by planting clover and turnips, which helps to supplement manure and rejuvenate used soil. These ideas spread like wildfire through places such as England as time went on. In the English domains especially these advancements translated into new ideas. One early idea that changed the scope of the time was Jethro Tull’s iron plow, which allowed the earth to be turned deeper, and for grain to be spread by drill instead of hand casting seeds. This allowed harvest time to last long. Another advancement that changed the industry was rotation of crops in which livestock grazed. Created by Charles Townsend,  this process allowed a combination of animals and crops to be raised all year round, allowing for a virtually never ending supply of meat. Because there were more animals to fertilize the crops, there ended up with a much larger supply of vegetables as well, meaning there was more food in general. Finally, Robert Bakewell discovered ways to produce better breeding matches of livestock creating a new level of success in dairy and meat industries. Together, these changes, though stretched out, were not gradual. From the minute each was implemented, they were successful and altered the course of agriculture at the time.

                In addition, the rapid increase in enclosure fields, replacing the traditional open field method of farming spurred on the advancement of the scientific revolution. Before this, fields had been farmed in the open, with the community deciding the crops. But by this time, landlords started to use an enclosed method, where they would fence off specific lands in order to gain population on the farms and get more profits for their investment. However, this did not go over well with the peasants who counted on the older methods. They rose up and rioted as wealthy favoring systems rained down hell on their economic situation. In this way, the agricultural revolution truly was a revolution. It featured a new and drastically different regime replacing the old ways, which created fighting and turmoil among many factions of society. In this way, the agricultural revolution even showed signs of being similar to a political revolution like the one that would happen in France later in the century. This also became controversial, because though it increased food production overall, it gave a higher percentage of that market to the wealthy landlords and nobles. Those who were traditionally farmers no had nothing, except to work for the wealthy to control their food. The effect of this resonated for years to come in all of Europe, without a doubt, proves that the agricultural revolution was a revolt of sorts in theory.

                Though the Agricultural revolution took place over a span of 150 years, it does not represent a gradual change. Each important step that was made towards modernization drastically impacted the course of events surrounding it. While the term might be coined to represent all of these events together, it can still be said that the agricultural revolution was, in fact, a revolutio

Chapter 14 - Intellectual

Throughout the scientific revolution, many philosophers and scientists impacted the world in a way that changed the way people thought, and leading among them was John Locke, perhaps the most influential and critical think of the seventeenth century.

                Politically, Locke wrote the Two Treatise of Government, published in 1690, that would set grounds for thought and rule in the Enlightenment and onwards. In the First Treatise of Government, Locke rejected the traditional patriarchal explanation of absolute government. Besides the Divine Right Theory, this model was one of the most traditionally accepted ideas used to justify a king’s rule over his lands. Its premise was that just like a father naturally becomes the leader of a family, a King would become ruler of a nation as people unified into this larger “family.”After witnessing the political unrest of England during his early years, Locke wrote his treatise against this theory. His work made such a gigantic impact on the philosophy of the time that never again did a major political thinker reference the patriarchal model as a proof or support in their rational.

                In his Second Treatise of government, by far the most recognizable of the pair, Locke explained and defended the necessity and reasoning of or the Social Contract theory. This process, originally coined in Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, exists to describe how the government exists to protect the interests and security of its people, and that these subjects agree to give up some of their private rights for this interest. Through this mutual interest, society can flourish. Unlike Hobbes, Locke thought about this in a way of logic. By default, people were reasonable and had a simple sense of goodwill. In a state of natural peace, people can keep their own situations how they want them, but this is not possible in conflict. Therefore, the people delegate this service to the government. That way, the government serves the people, and not vice versa. This is why Locke fought against absolute rule, and this treatise was used for the purpose of justifying the Glorious Revolution, stating that the people had the natural right to abolish a negatively acting regime. This first glimmer of limited and self run government would eventually lead to Revolutions in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, changing Europe’s political status as a whole.

                In addition, Locke set a new code for the running of Religion through a state. In previous times, the religion was forced by a more powerful territory, used by default, or chosen by the leader of the state, as seen in the Peace of Augsburg. But in Letter Concerning Toleration, Locke chooses a different solution: religious tolerance. He concocted the simple theory that allowing religious toleration within a single state would put an end to the violence and hatred that had been disputed since the start of the Reformation. He noted that religious beliefs were something on the inside of humans, and it was not the government’s job or place to enforce rules upon them, as they would not truly believe it anyway, and citizens would have grounds to rebel. Although this didn’t extend to any faiths besides Protestants, and Locke used old rational to support this, the original purpose stands as the first grounds of religious tolerance by philosophers. But the nineteenth century, a broader version of this concept would be what new and reformed Nation States alike would be built on, such as the USA.

                Finally, Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he pictured the human mind at birth as a blank slate. He based this on the fact a person’s behavior and actions are based on their surroundings and nurturing. A child’s mindset could almost be crafted in this way. In the future, this idea would be linked to the origins of behaviorism. Though he denied Original Sin, Locke though that this idea and his others actually preserved religion. He sought to convince and dissuade fanatics from undermining the links between scripture and nature, and used his theories as evidence for that. Whatever the case, this philosophical model is still being used, and in some instances debated, in the world today.

                Without a doubt, john Locke is one of the most influential and brilliant philosophers and men of his time. Unlike other philosophers, known for one idea or discovery, Locke made several rash but necessary assertions. They not only were ahead of their time, but led the basis for Modern European and world thought as we know it.

Chapter 13 - Social

                I have recently been bestowed upon the join and beauty that is our King’s Palace of Versailles. As a modest peasant, I of course am not worthy or wealthy enough to seek a permanent residence in his Majesty’s royal space, but I am still extremely grateful to have experience it’s magnificent view and see it in awe. Though I may not be wealthy, I am blessed to be one of the only of my family to have received an education. And now, I have received the aura of Louis XIV’s masterpiece.

              When I first stepped foot in front of the building, my jaw dropped below even my shoulders in awe of its greatness. I have been in several Cathedrals during my travels as a Roman Catholic, but even they cower in the shadow of the sheer brilliance that is Versailles. At my first step inside I was taken aback by the artistic and masterful aesthetics. The people call Louis XIV the Sun King, and the style of the building certainly fits, with its warm, rich colors and powerful art. This kind of architecture was never even thought of back home. Once you’re inside, there is no better sight in all of France. Around every corner and above every pasture are huge fountains and luscious garden fill of fresh, trimmed and natural plant life. I could have sworn that even the stables were so large his Majesty could fit every horse in Europe and England into them if he had such a desire.

              As I walked through the halls, I encountered countless nobles and royal officials. Even though some of them lived in quarters in the building, they still seemed just as taken back as me. Under those incredibly high ceilings, it was almost as if we were all just serfs to the witness of his Majesty’s absolute glory. I spoke with one of the servants, and he says that some of the nobles even get personal access to the King when he goes to bed at night. He grants them personal favors in exchange for their service. It seems a little far-fetched, but I believe it. Over in England they complain about the horrors of monarch’s absolute power. But I then tell them, if a King is willing to spend half of his entire fortune every year to keep his subjects happy, entertained and safe, then what is so wrong about letting him do those things?

            After leaving, I stayed in Paris until the evening, when Louis XIV himself came out of his chambers to show off his powerful crown. I have no doubt that he knows what is right for our people. Though I am far from a wealthy noble, I can see now why everyone loves his Majesty so much. He is generous and pleasant towards his people, yet shows the strength and fortitude of his kingdom to the world with every swing of his sword. He is everything the French people need and want from our King. And my trip to a fantastic Palace of Versailles in Paris has shown me exactly why Louis XIV is such a fantastic leader.

Chapter 12 - Reflection

            I believe that I contributed fairly well to my project. When we first started, I perhaps didn’t get down to working fast enough and instead for the first 10-15 minutes was more preoccupied with creating a fun idea for our lesson. However, I do think that was worth it in the end. After finishing our rubric, which I tried to contribute too but mostly settled down in, we assigned each member a part of the war. I unfortunately ended up with the French/Swedish period, which really limited me to a short part of the presentation. With that in mind, I tried to make connections during my presentation and engage as much as I could. However, as I was a little rushed being at the end with limited time remaining, I found myself on spewing information, and combined with my attempt at being enthusiastic, I messed up a little with the delivery. I even forgot my main “connection” to keep the audience engaged, which was to compare the amount of deaths in the period to the last European catastrophe, the Black Plague. Because I had such a small part, most of my time on the project was dedicated to the song, and it took a whole lot of time. Along with Zach, we wrote the lyrics from scratch using our textbook as a base reference. Then we had to record the song, which was not easy in itself. Our timing was not well with the instrumental we found, and we had to go through it about a dozen times. Then we recorded the video together, which didn’t take much time, besides the fact that our timing was extremely off from the audio we had made. But we couldn’t record from the phone camera because the audio was horrible. So when I put it into Movie Maker the next night to edit it, I was there for hours, attempting to use editing magic to cut, slow down and speed up the vocals, background and video to all sync up properly, and it still didn’t come up well. However, I still thought Zach and I did a very good and funny job on it, and it took a lot of time, which is why I was very disappointed when it couldn’t be shown during the presentation. Other than my part and the song, I worked a little on the style of the PowerPoint and found the painting/ wrote the question for the SSP, but that’s about 

           Overall I think my group put together a fairly solid and interesting lesson. However, we definitely have a lot to work on. We put together the slides and gave the necessary information. It was clear, easy to follow and take information from. I also thought we did a great job creating quick, engaging and creative activities for out opening, closing and song activities. However, there were certainly issues as well. Our time management was horrible, and at some points it felt like our presentation was not flowing correctly. We all spoke, and I don’t think that was a good choice. Our assembly line of presenters at a podium very much limited what we did, and I think that as a group we faltered, falling back into our note reading, presentation making style, instead of having the lesson itself have emotion and flavor. We were a little rushed by the time limit, but while the class length messed with us a little, this is mostly attributed to our lack of coordination and group rehearsal. I don’t want to name names, but some parts definitely were rushed and others took way too long. I think our group did a fine presentation of the 30 Years War, but we did not do a great job at making a lesson and taking the cues we needed to, when we needed to. That’s what held us back. The activities were nice, but we didn’t translate that creativity into the meat of the presentation. Overall, our lesson was good and informative, but was underwhelming in terms of engagement and enthusiasm.

Chapter 11 – Religious

Dear Family,

            What do traditions mean if they are unfair and non-beneficial to our holy and physical life as peasants here in Wittenberg. For hundreds of years we have been struggling to cleanse our souls for the sake of the Church. But we don’t have to do that much longer. Recently I read a decree by a priest named Martin Luther that is swarming around the Holy Roman Empire. The “95 Theses,” as they are called, represent exactly what we have been thinking for years when we think about it. At home we sit eating our bread loaf and complain about indulgences, and the political/military entity the Papal States have become. It is obvious this is no way to live, and it’s not the way God intends it, if we are to be true followers of his guidance.

            As peasants in the Holy Roman Empire, we cannot bear the price of indulgences. Nor should we want to. Every day, the Pope sits there and grants people forgiveness of their sins in exchange for gifts, wealth and acts. Yet, the Pope is one of the richest men on this earth. Who is he to forgive sins and take the money of his parishioners? Are we expected to believe that we should go to heaven based on how much money we give the church so the Pope can get some new robes, or fund a new basilica that we do not need? In addition, how does doing a single “good deed” mark you closer to going to heaven? Like Luther says, God does not judge based on petty deeds or sins. If you are a true and divine Christian, you should go to heaven anyway. The only reason good people should do good deeds is because they are divine and they know it is right, not because they are scared if they do not they will go to hell. If the Church was true, Pope’s would be going to hell already, after invading their fellow Catholics on our lands like a political nation. It is preposterous to think petty acts or indulgences can change you spiritual dignity.

            In addition, we must remember the Pope is not God, and Rome is far from a holy place. The Pope makes exception in the church, excommunicates people, and forgives sins as if he is the messiah himself. His blatant abuse of power has worn down people over time. He has no right to be doing anything but lead us in worshipping God’s words, yet that is barely in his current line of work. In reality, the church makes its own rules. Over the last 1000 years, the Roman Catholic Church has twisted, deleted, and invented its own doctrine to maximize the influence and power of the Christendom. It has nothing to do with God. Luther is trying to get rid of this bias and contrite factor. We do not need that. By eliminating the corruption, we can go back to the bible the way it was first written, and the rules God meant to say to us. Anything that is not in Holy Scripture should not be a part of the church.

            This is 1517. The days of living life as nothing but a slave to the Church are over. Look at the paintings around you. They are about the individual, their accomplishments and advancement in society. Luther puts into perspective the underlying subconscious emotions we all have had, and we finally have an opportunity. We are not abandoning God; we are abandoning the faults of a corrupt and greedy power. We can be free with God in ourselves, if we choose to take the step. So I ask you, my wonderful family, whom I love for eternally, to join me in the quest for these ideals.

Chapter 10 - "The School of Athens"

               The School of Athens is the complete entity of what Renaissance art is. With his elegant strokes of paint, Raphael shaped not only an eye catching display, but a perfect depiction of the civic and religious humanism that defined the era.

                On either side of a single vanishing point in the middle of the picture are the two most prominent and important figures in the painting: Plato on the left, and Aristotle on the right. These two different sides show a direct correlation with the 2 types of humanism. On the left, Plato introduces the more spiritual and philosophical side of the piece. He stands there, holding his book about the heavens and pointing to the Sky. But this is different from the way people in the middle ages had conceived religious though. Plato was interested in learning about the other worldly, and about thought process, not just following what was already there. He wears red and grey robes, the colors of fire and air, both of which are very intangible elements of life, like the ideas Plato developed. He is joined on his side by other great philosophers of Greece, to symbolize the importance of these historic figures in the new ideas of religious humanism.

                On the right, Aristotle stands, wearing blue and brown robes. Like Plato, these represent the type of work he completed: blue for water, and brown for earth. Both of these are the tangible elements, which you can touch and feel. This is because Aristotle as a mathematician and scientist. Due to this, he holds a book on ethic. This very physical and concrete thought basis is the foundation for civic humanism. His discoveries were more observations and strict calculations, than the thought processes of those on the left. He is joined by famous astronomers, scientists, mathematicians and other important ancient figures. Joining them on this side is Athena, the goddess of wisdom, strategy, and hands on thinking. But more importantly, Raphael also paints himself, Leonardo Da Vinci, and Michelangelo in the foreground. By doing this, he is saying that in the end, he believes his generation will be just as important and influential as the other leaders painted in the picture, and his own era will be just as important in developing the individual virtues of civ humanism. Clearly, Raphael thought process was completely correct.

                Though these two ideas are separated, they also are own. They are on different sides, but behind Aristotle and Plato is just vast emptiness. Much like the building in “The School of Athens,” the capacity for knowledge and thoughts related to humanism is infinite. Under the one Roman Arch in the very foreground of the painting, all the people involved are hard at work, integrated into their environments and taking an active part in their learning, listening and discussing with each other, spreading their information and ideas. Those values of taking the initiative, and having your own beliefs based around yourself is exactly what humanism during this time embodied, and Raphael painted it’s picture with eloquent perfection in two ways, tangible and intangible, much like his art. It’s is a gorgeous piece of art, as well as representing the main prospering ideas of the time. By doing that to such a tee, “The School of Athens,” shines as a headline in the field of Renaissance art.